Persuasive method of Tesco Christmas Advert 2014 - Lights on Essay

Persuasive method of Tesco Christmas Advert 2014 - Lights on - Essay Example The Gen pen has been made better by the use of water resistant ink. Buy 4 get 1 free at this back to school season† The complete pictorial representation is a metaphor reflecting the professionalism associated with the Gen pen. The representation is quite appealing to capture the audience’s attention. Every element of the image captures a particular information. My intention in using a students image is to be able to capture the main writing target audience. Generally, the image aims at winning loyalty in the use of the Gen pen by ensuring the effectiveness and quality of the pen. My choice of a smiling student has several reasons for its use. To start with, a smiling face implies lack of troubles. In other words, it conveys a message of comfort. This assures the TA of the pens effectiveness while writing. The smiling face acts as a point of attracting attention. For the TA to have an interest to read the advert, it must be appealing and calling out to the audience. I opted to use the exact pen positioning of the tip pointing towards the handwritten work while the other end heads downwards. First, the pen’s tip acts as a pointer towards the handwritten work. The handwritten work has its implications as well as seen later. The pointing therefore acts as an enhancement to ensure that the TA has had a view of the handwritten work. Furthermore, the positioning of the pen from downwards to upwards helps to reflect the ascending ladder an academic system. It implies a progressive continuation of this ladder that also helps to create awareness for the need of education. The fast moving white fumes that are exiting at the pen’s tip convey a message of high speed. I opted to use this in order to convey a message of convenience. It is obvious that the speed may be essential when writing. For this reason, I opted to convey a message that the Gen pen is designed to allow high speed in writing. The student flying on the pen is

Managing Change and Innovation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Managing Change and Innovation - Essay Example But then again, are these measures sufficient? True enough, money, skilled workers, viable product and an aggressive marketing campaign will make a business (Henry & Mayle 2002). Combined with healthy competition, the result is a thriving conglomerate. Mixing this recipe a thousand times over results in several thriving conglomerates each vying for the top. What then is the missing ingredient that may bolster any business into longevity and resilience when pitted against several others like it? One businessman may claim that for a company to be able to keep abreast of the fast change in the market, it is important that the company keep close to the customer by creating a culture of openness and adopting a mindset of flexibility and inquiry (Brynteson 2010). Another argument is that technology must be taken full advantage of as it plays a key role in enabling radical new options and the implementation of bright new ideas (Tidd & Bessant 2009). â€Å"The only thing that does not chang e is change itself.† This phrase is true and that as a matter of fact, change is the only event not marred by its predilection to either occur or not. It is certain to ensue. By itself, one must then be vigilant and though complete preparation cannot be undertaken, it must still be carried on. Utmost diligence and keen foresight may be the only weapons that could hold off the crippling effects of constant evolution. Innovation as Catalyst for Corporate Dominance In business, this evolution is referred to as development or advancement or what is more commonly called â€Å"progress.† This is characterized as the continued instigation of ideas translated into product, process or theory. Often, this development is manipulated and taken advantage of by venture capitalists such that these inventions become their ticket in entering the global trading pool. Corporate officers  use management tools to dramatically increase the payoff from  innovation investments (Davila, Eps tein, & Shelton 2005). But in order to stay in the game, entrepreneurs cannot rely solely on the initial stance of their offer. It must be reinvented, upgraded and further developed so as to maximize its full potential. An outline of the guiding techniques for planning and implementation must be performed by enterprises to ascertain their performance vis-a-vis their goals (Carnall 2007). But then again, a particular object can only take on so much and time will come when it would eventually bow down to a more novel concept. As such, businessmen must employ any and all means necessary to make the most out of their offer. This is where marketing strategies and advertising campaign come to play. But a new advent in business management has emerged, such that promotional tactics and selling techniques have seemingly taken an abrupt exit, in the guise of innovation management (Trott 2008). Innovation Defined Innovation, from a business perspective, is defined by Mayle (2006) as a vehicle of growth. Innovation is the strategy necessary to remain an active player in the global market by continually revolutionizing the economic structure, creating new products and enhancing current business processes. Schumpeter (1943), in his work, has maintained that in order to stay in the economic playing field, entrepreneurs must constantly search for better ways to satisfy their patrons by offering the best quality in the lowest cost possible. In another, it is claimed that the primal objective of a corporate entity

Policing Human Trafficking: Issues

Policing Human Trafficking: Issues Written for the Home Office Challenges of policing sex trafficking Sex Trafficking is a hidden and very complex crime. On this account, the lack of awareness, knowledge and a legal definition about this crime makes, policing sex trafficking, a challenge. This briefing paper will approach the issues encountered when policing sex trafficking in the United Kingdom. Special points of interest Effectiveness of the National Referral Mechanism Support victims effectively UK Border Agency backlog Lack of authorized agencies Lack of awareness and knowledge Care for child victims Inside this issue The National Referral Mechanism Recovery Time The UK Border Agency backlog First Responders Identify victims Legislation Accommodation for Child Victims Definition of Human Trafficking According to the Palermo Protocol, the definition of human trafficking is: ‘the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal or organs’ (Palermo Protocol, 2011) There are three main elements to define Human Trafficking. The movement which is the transportation or recruitment of persons, the control which reflects the coercion, use of force, threat or payment method to control a person, and the purpose thins being the exploitation of a person through forced labour, the removal of organs, slavery and sexual exploitation.(UKHTC, 2013) Human trafficking is often seen as an international cross-border, but it can also exist human trafficking within your own country. (UKHTC, 2013) The National Referral Mechanism Recovery Time The National Referral Mechanism (NRM) purpose is to identify victims of trafficking and give them protection and assistance. To be engage in the NRM process, the potential victims of trafficking will generally have to be identified by the front line practitioners or First Responders such as the police force or the UK Agency Border, etc. (UKHTC, 2013) When a potential victim of trafficking is referred to the NRM by an authorised agency, the Competent Authorities – UK Human Trafficking Centre (UKHTC) or UK Border Agency (UKBA) – has to make a ‘reasonable grounds’ decision, which is decide whether a person is a victim of trafficking even if they cannot prove it in only up to five days. (UKHTC, 2013) If the decision is positive, the potential victim of trafficking will be granted a period of 45 days to recover from the traumatic events and reflect upon decisions such as whether co-operate with the police, go home, etc. (UKHTC, 2013) Several studies have identified the serious and complex mental health needs of victims of human trafficking. Victims of sex trafficking have often experienced, or confronted with events that included actual or threatened death or serious injury (Clawson, et al, 2008). According the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the victim’s response to these events involves fear and feelings of withdrawn. The APA considers these reactions and exposure to trauma, two of the main criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD). Table 1 shows the percentage of trafficked women with these symptoms. For an official diagnosis take place, the symptoms must to persist for over a month. PTSD usually presents itself within the first three months after a traumatic event and in about half of victims, a complete recovery take place within three months (American Psychiatric Association, 2005). The UK Border Agency backlog The aims of the UKBA are the law enforcement in order to protect the national interests, protecting the UK’s border, solving crimes such as immigration, smuggling and border tax fraud, and executing fast and fair decisions. (UKBA, 2013) If a potential victim of human trafficking has an unclear immigration status the victim will be referred to the Competent Authorities in the UKBA. These Competent Authorities in the UKBA work mainly with asylum issues. Since asylum and human trafficking cases are dealt in different ways and have different processes, these two roles could create a backlog of work contradicting their duty of executing fast and fair decisions. (Victims of Human Trafficking – guidance for frontline staff, 2013) In evidence to the Centre for Social Justice, a Competent Authority of the UKBA stated that ‘It’s difficult if you’re working on asylum cases to get the other work done†¦you’re constantly interrupted.’ (2013, p.78) ‘It’s difficult if you’re working on asylum cases to get the other work  done†¦you’re constantly interrupted.’ (Centre for Social Justice, 2013) The statistics show that the UKBA in 2012 had 33,900 backlog asylum cases and 7,000 backlog immigration cases that it needs to be concluded. Table 2 shows the asylum and immigration backlog casework. Many people have waited many years to know the result of their applications. The number of asylum seekers waiting for a decision for more than six months is 53% and the 3% is the number of cases that were concluded within a year. Table 3 shows the number of dependent applicants waiting more than 6 months for an initial decision. (Parliament, 2013) First Responders All the agencies and organisations that are more likely to encounter victims of trafficking are considered the First Responders. Therefore, they are authorized agencies to refer the victims of trafficking to the NRM. The NRM was introduced in 2009 and since that, the number of authorized agencies or First Responders increased. (SOCA, 2013) Chris Good, a former Youth Offending Team Senior Practitioner of Ashfield in evidence for the Centre for Social Justice stated ‘No-one in the community completes a NRM referral ahead of remand, hence the YOT have had to do it despite being officially unable to.’(2013, p.72) The Young Offender Institutions (YOIs) have identified a number of young people within their institutions, who were not referred to the NRM and with characteristics of a victim of trafficking. The problem is that the YOIs are not authorized to refer these victims to the NRM. (The Centre for Social Justice, 2013) ‘No-one in the community completes a NRM referral ahead of remand, hence the YOT have had to do it despite being officially unable to.’ (Chris Good, former YOT Senior) Identify victims In the UK, the identification of a victim of trafficking is based on two approaches: one is based on having sufficient evidence for prosecuting the crime of traffic of human beings, and another is under the NRM. The Home Office provides a set of guidelines on how to identify victims of trafficking, but there are no formal training given to the authorities indicating what issues they must look for. (GRETA, 2012) The Minister of Immigration is who deal with the human trafficking. This could influence the misperception of what human trafficking is. However, there is evidence suggesting that even police officers have a lack of knowledge and awareness related to crimes of sex trafficking. In evidence for the Centre for Social Justice, the Deputy Chief Constable of Sussex Police stated ‘One girl escaped from a brothel and went to a police station to tell that she had been trafficked. She had no passport. Under these circumstances, we choose to arrest her for being and illegal immigrant.’ (2013, p.84) ‘One girl escaped from a brothel and went to a police station to tell that she had been trafficked. She had no passport. Under these circumstances, we choose to arrest her for being and illegal immigrant.’ Giles York, Deputy Chief Constable In 1997, the Global Alliance Against Trafficking in Women (GAATW), after conducted a research into trafficking of women, affirmed that collect evidence on crimes of women trafficking was almost impossible due to a lack of a consistent and precise definition of women trafficking and the criminal nature of prostitution. (Doezema, 2000) Generally speaking, the adversarial system existent in the UK states that a person is innocent until proven guilty. (Davies, et al., 2010) Taking this into account, having the knowledge of how to identify a victim of human trafficking is essential to support, assist and combat crimes of human trafficking. (Hope for Justice, 2013) Legislation The Sexual Offences Act 2003 under the sections 57, 58 and 59 define the trafficking for sexual exploitation a crime when, an individual traffick a person into the UK (Section 57), an individual traffick a person within the UK (Section 58) and an individual traffick a person out of the UK (Section 59). (SOCA, 2013) The Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants, etc.) Act 2004 define a crime for trafficking human beings within the UK if an individual arrange or facilitate the arrival into the UK of a victim, and intend or know that someone else intends, to exploit the victim in the UK or elsewhere. (Crown Prosecution Service, 2013) The fact that the requirement needed to prosecute someone for trafficking within the UK is to prove that the individual was first trafficked into the UK is a barrier for successful prosecutions. Table 2 shows the number of Human Trafficking convictions in England and Wales between 2009 and 2011 on a principle offence basis. (Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Human Trafficking, 2012) Accommodation for child victims After a child been identified as a victim of human trafficking they will be referred to an agency with statutory powers for child protection such as the police or the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) to provide secure safety to them. Under The Children Act 1989, section 17 the local authority has the duty to safeguard the welfare of children in their area. (Children Act 1989, 2008) The needs of a child will dictate the accommodation given by the local authorities, such as foster care, children’s homes or unsupervised care (hotels or hostels). (CEOP, 2007) Despite the fact that there is little information about on trafficked children going missing from care the APPG for Runaway and Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After Children and Care Leavers estimates that 60% of potential child victims on care by local authorities go missing and nearly two thirds are never found. (APPG for Runaway and Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After Children and Care Leavers, 2012) The APPG affirmed that one of the reason for children go missing from the care of their local authorities is ‘that they are groomed so effectively by their traffickers that the children are so terrified of what might happen to them or their families if they break their bond or tell the authorities that they run back to their traffickers.’ (2012, p.13) However, under the section 47 of The Children Act 1989 the local authorities must start an investigation if a child is ‘suffering, or is likely to suffer, significant harm’ (The Children Act 1989, section 47). Although, as it was mentioned previously in this briefing paper, the lack of knowledge by the authorities about human trafficking and, in this particular case, about trafficked children makes the identification and investigation hard to be successful. Psychological treatment for children The accommodation support is not the only failure of the government officers. As it was mentioned previously, the impact of exploitation in victims’ minds is immense and it could take years for a complete recovery. In evidence to the Centre for Social Justice, one foster carer spoke about the lack of available counsellor to support those children in her care. In a certain case, instead of wait so long for a counsellor, the foster carer decided to pay a private one with her own money. (Centre for Social Justice, 2013) The manager of the Children and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) said to the Centre for Social Justice that they have so much pressure that the most difficult cases tend to stay behind. (Centre for Social Justice, 2013) Conclusion This briefing paper explored several points where policing human trafficking in the UK is failing and how it could be improved. The need of a more specific definition of human trafficking is an important step to raise awareness and increase knowledge among the public and all the government officers in order to give an effective response to victims of trafficking. Victims of exploitation are very vulnerable persons, and for that reason, First Responders need to have a practical training to understand how to deal with a victim of exploitation. Having specialized government officers at places where there is a large likelihood of finding victims of trafficking is essential. With proper training the officers will increase the chance of prosecute and convict offenders of human trafficking. The law in the UK for human trafficking should be defined in one way and not in several parts thereby creating confusion for those who deal with trafficked victims. Have the knowledge on how to support and take care of child and adults victims of trafficking is essential to prepare them for a new life and to gain ability to prosecute offenders with success. Give psychological support to both adult and children should be well implemented to protect the national interests. Recommendations Define the number of days depending on the intensity of trauma of the victims of trafficking Divide the immigration, asylum and human trafficking cases between different departments within the UK Border Agency Increase the number of agencies with authority to refer victims of trafficking to the National Referral Mechanism The Minister of Immigration should no longer deal with human trafficking cases and pass that administration to Policing and Criminal Justice Minister in the Home Office. Provide more practical training for First Responders Create awareness and sensitize the public and First Responders Make sure that First Responders are aware of what human trafficking is and how to respond to victims of human trafficking. Reinforce policing in after care of children victims of trafficking Supply faster counselling to children References American Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (2010) Evidence-Based Mental Health Treatment for Victims of Human Trafficking. Available at: http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/07/humantrafficking/mentalhealth/index.pdf (Accessed: 5 May 2013) APPG (2012) Report from the joint Inquiry into children who go missing from care. Available at: http://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/sites/default/files/tcs/u32/joint_appg_inquiry_-_reportpdf (Accessed: 20 May 2013) Centre for Social Justice (2013) It Happens Here. Centre for Social Justice. Available at: http://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/UserStorage/pdf/Pdf%20reports/CSJ_Slavery_Full_Report_WEB(5).pdf (Accessed: 10 May 2013) CEOP (2007) A Scoping Project on Child Trafficking in the UK. London: Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre Available at: http://polis.osce.org/library/f/2973/1500/GOV-GBR-RPT-2973-EN-1500 (Accessed: 20 May 2013) Clawson, H. J., Dutch, N. M., and Williamson, E. (2008). National symposium on the health needs of human trafficking: Background document. Washington, DC. Crown Prosecution Service (2013) Human Trafficking and Smuggling. Available at: http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/human_trafficking_and_smuggling/#a10 (Accessed: 16 May 2013) Davies, M., Croall, H. and Tyrer, J. (2010) Criminal Justice. (4th edn.) Harlow: Longman Doezema, J. (2000). ‘Loose or Lost Women? The Re-emergence of the Myth of White Slavery in Contemporary Discourses of Trafficking in Women.’ Gender Issues 18(1): 23-50. GRETA (2012) Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the United Kingdom. Strasbourg: Cedex Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/download.action;jsessionid=gzYqRMcKJNWh9Tx9Thjv69Cs9mmWpwLvgX38LkPQFG51ssv11Th3!1062222535?nodePath=%2FPublications%2FGRETA_Report+United+Kingdom+2012_en.pdffileName=GRETA_Report+United+Kingdom+2012_en.pdf (Accessed: 10 May 2013) Hope for Justice (2013) Human Trafficking Briefing. Available at: http://hopeforjustice.org.uk/human-trafficking-briefing#human-trafficking-briefing (Accessed: 1 May 2013) Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group (2012) First annual report of the Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Human Trafficking. Home Office Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/118116/human-trafficking-report.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2013) Legislation.gov.uk (2008) Children Act 1989. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/41/contents (Accessed: 20 May 2013) Parliament (2013) The work of the UK Border Agency (July-September 2012). Home Affairs. Available at: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmhaff/792/79205.htm#023 (Accessed: 10 May 2013) SOCA (2013) An Overview of Human Trafficking. Available at: http://www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/about-the-ukhtc/an-overview-of-human-trafficking (Accessed: 1 May 2013) SOCA (2013) National Referral Mechanism. Available at: http://www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/about-the-ukhtc/national-referral-mechanism (Accessed: 1 May 2013) SOCA (2013) Sexual Offecences Act 2003. Available at: http://www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/about-the-ukhtc/relevant-legislation/sexual-offences-act-2003 (Accessed: 1 May 2013) The Palermo Protocol (2011) The Palermo Protocol. Available at: http://www.palermoprotocol.com/general/the-palermo-protocol (Accessed: 1 May 2013) UKBA (2013) Our Organisation. Available at: http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/aboutus/organisation/  (Accessed: 5 May 2013) UKBA (2013) Victims of Trafficking – guidance for frontline staff. Home Office. Available at: http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/modernised/cross-cut/protecting-vulnerable/04-victimstrafficking?view%253DBinary.28357810ECEA7B1C20CBF76CFF49144E.html (Accessed: 5 May 2013) Is Memory a Constructive and Active Process? Is Memory a Constructive and Active Process? Joane Cree Memory is a constructive and active process’ Evaluate this claim, drawing upon evidence from Chapter 8. of Book 1, Mapping Psychology Memories are part of people that grow and develop overtime, through everyday life and the[p1] experience that they have. They are vital in that they tell people how to react to certain situations and the people that they encounter along the way. Memories can allow people to effectively cope with social situations, and choose the best behaviour to suit the situation. They allow people to remember rules or safety information, to keep themselves and other safe. A lot of the feelings about a situation that people have come from previous knowledge of how they felt or what happened to them at that time. They can make experiences more stressful, but they can also build up confidence or make them feel more nervous. Memories provide people with information to allow them to make decisions, they allow them to plan their lives and help them to understand their own personalities as well as others. Therefore they are apart of the people they are and the people that they will become. This essay wil l look at memory as being a dynamic and active process rather than just a mechanism for storing information. A cognitive perspective on memory is not easy to investigate, as it cannot be observed directly. A variety of methods are used to provide evidence and explanations into understanding structures and theories of the mind. These include controlled laboratory experiments, quasi-experiments, field experiments, diary studies and cross-sectional studies, using insider as well as outsider viewpoints. Useful comparative information can be found by looking at case studies of memory deficits. Memory researchers have developed various theories to help to understand what regions of the brain are involved in making memories, and memory operating processes, how memories are constructed and how these are not always remembered exactly in the memory as they happened. They provide an illustration on how we are constituted by experiences and how this affects behaviour. You need a reference to Pheonix here (Pheonix 2007) Researchers have found three key memory processes, which work together to process information. These include encoding processes, storage processes and lastly retrieval processes. A(s a)ll three of these processes work with each other, but how well the information is remembered depends on how well it was encoded. Encoding information involves putting information into the memory to store it. Using a visual appearance, a sound of a word or the meaning of the word, or a skill action, which is then transferred into a code. Once an experience is coded, storage processes retain the coded information in the memory, and it is then used to form internal representations, when it is matched with something seen.( Using the retrieval process the information is) Retrieval involves taking (en) from the memory store. It is then recognised and recalled by the memory. Research completed by William James (1890), looked at a primary memory permitting conscious activity in the mind and also a secondary m emory which was responsible for storing the knowledge. Further research provided three sub-sections, sensory memory, short term and long-term memory Need another reference to Brace and Roth here. Memory is active, can be selective and constructive[p2], but the memory does depend on the brain functioning, and memory research has shown that experiences and ongoing cognitive functions can affect the brain biologically. Experiences in the environment can also contribute to our biological being. Leading researcher Albert Bartlett believed in constructive memory, and he rejected the idea that memory involves us replaying peoples experiences of the past. This again suggests that memories grow though out peoples lives. Bartlett completed a study involving a story ‘The war of the ghosts’, from this study Bartlett found when they were asked to recall this story, that the story they told was different to the original one. He believed the errors to the story were the result of going beyond what was explicitly stated in the story. Bartlett later suggested from his research that when we are given new materials, we use previous knowledge/ past experience to make sense of it, â €˜effort after meaning’. His work demonstrated how the information stored in the memory and its accuracy could be affected by people’s own knowledge and experience of their life. His ideas have lead to further research taken place into the memory being a constructive rather than a reproductive process. That the memory is more active and has different components, not just a store for information. Future memories will not be exactly the same as past ones, the memory of an event can change over time when given new information, so it needs to be flexible. Memories of past events can be re constructed so may not be accurate in how it is remembered or recalled. This is a constructive rather than a reproductive system. Another argument by researchers is that experiences become memories and memories become structure, they are however inter- linked. Both of these making a person who they are, both biology and experiences influence memory. As neither biology or experience provides us with the full story. Research into memory has shown that the experiences that people have and people’s ongoing cognitive functions can be seen to affect the brain biologically. Studies into memory processes and structures provide evidence of how we are constituted by experiences around us. However having knowledge of an experience provide us with stimulation in order to cue a memory. It is believed that memory can be enhanced, and people can actively help their memory retain information. The theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972 cited in Brace and Roth 2007) in the levels of processing theory suggest that the retention of material in dependent on how deeply it was processed when encoded. They suggested that just copying down words without any meaning, would mean that the words would only be encoded at that level. Words with a meaning is encoded at a ‘deeper level’ so will therefore by more likely to be retained. This is because the brain is processing information more intensively, actively linking meaning to other stored material. Craik and Lockhart also looked at how the brain can memorise information by repeating information, with out further meaning behind it. These are all active processes. An example can be seen in an experiment by both Carik and Lockhart, based on this theory, the theory of processing investigation found that the participants rem embered more when told to remember the set of items. It was discovered by researchers that memory recall can be improved by using cues or prompts to retrieve information, so would suggest the memory is an active process which can be improved, therefore illustrating flexibility of the mind. It is the dynamic side of the memory that allows us to develop techniques to aid in remembering information. However a memory can also make errors, and often the memory can fail. But imperfections tell us that memory is not just a reproduction of past experences, and that it is a constructive process. Pieces of information from different sources come together to create the memory. Brace N at al, ‘Mapping Psychology’ P 170‘memory is an active, selective and constructive (rather then passive) process that is influenced by our previous knowledge, our emotional state and the social dynamics of the current situation’. The memory does not always work correctly, though sometimes this can be just temporary. Research into memory deficits tells us that parts of a damaged brain can be compensated for by other parts of the brain allowing for new memories and learning, again an active process. Another example of this is when memories are damaged or failing, as the memory can compensate to allow for this. By studying atypical memories it allows researchers to understand how the memory works and what part of the brain works with what memory processes. Memory[p3] is different among different people with different factors influencing its efficiency, such as knowledge and experiences (. Memories) and are personal to people with new memories being created all the time, as in life people continue to learn to adapt to the world around them. It could be said that memory is laid down biologically but is the outcome of the experiences people have. Memories can be changed and are not a total record of an experience (, as memories) not only because they can often fade (Memories) but because they can (also) be changed or elaborated (when they are recalled) , suggesting that they are not fixed and have a degree of plasticity/flexibility as they can change and develop. We can also actively employ techniques to help us remember information. Therefore this would mean that the memory is active rather then it being simply a store for information. Word Count 1, 431 Reference: Brace, N and Roth I (2007) Memory: structures, processes and skills. In Miell, D Pheonix, A and Thomas K. Mapping Psychology. Milton Keynes. The Open University Good end of essay referencing. [p1]  Whilst it is good that you have made it clear how important memory this good be very much summarised. The terms that most need defining are â€Å"constructe† and â€Å"active†. You need to tell the reader how you mean to tackle the question i.e. what evidence you will use. [p2]  Some explanation, and perhaps an example of what is meant by constructive is needed here. [p3]  This conclusion is reasonably well focused on assessing the claim, and summarises your points fairly well in relation to individual differences, interaction between biology and experience, plasticity and employing techniques. Superoxide Dismutase: Oxidative Stress Superoxide Dismutase: Oxidative Stress SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE: OXIDATIVE STRESS Sebastian, Jay Francine A. and Feliciano, Angel P. III INTRODUCTION Superoxide Dismutase or SOD is an enzyme that has a metal-containing antioxidant. It reduces any harmful free radicals of Oxygen or O2 forming during a normal metabolic cell state that it will form oxygen or O2 and Hydrogen peroxide. Its name originated from dismutation which means simultaneous oxidation and reduction, with that being said Supeoxide Dismutase belongs to the enzyme class Oxido-reductases. To which this enzyme catalyzes an oxidation reaction and reduction reaction. Oxidation is a reaction that increases oxygen bonding and/or decreases hydrogen bonding, while reduction is a reaction that increases hydrogen bonding and/or decreases oxygen bonding. This enzyme can be found with all living cells, but for medicinal use the enzyme is extracted specifically from cows. It can be taken as a shot as a pain treatment and inflammation caused by Arthritis. It can also be used as a shot for tolerance of radiation therapy, improves rejection rates of kidney transplants and minimizes heart damage from heart attacks.(1) SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE The Structure: Superoxide Dismutase The Cell wall not to be mistaken as the cell membrane is located outside the said cell membrane. It is described to be tough and rigid but flexible. It surrounds certain cells like: plants, fungi (like mushrooms), prokaryotes (like bacteria) and eukaryotes (like mammals). This acts as a support, protection and as a filter for unwanted foreign substances. The cell wall benefits from superoxide dismutase. Superoxide dismutase aids to the reproduction of yeast. The cell functions against cell wall-perturbation. Cell wall-perturbation is caused by oxidative stress and the superoxide dismutase aids as an antioxidant. This being said the yeast cell may be able to bud and reproduce due to the protection of superoxide dismutase. (2) Supeoxide dismutase can be found in the dermis and the epidermis. It can also be found in a Siberian chaga mushroom or CHAGA for short. It is abundant of SOD antioxidants. Superoxide dismutase is associated with Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe). It many cases this is a metabolic enzyme due to it being an antioxidant. (3) Copper, Zinc Superoxide dismutase also known as superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) this enzyme is located within humans and is soluble. This structure displays that Cu,Zn Superoxide dismutase is embedded within this enzyme. This is located in the cytosol, nucleus, peroxisomes, and mitochondrial intermembrane space of eukaryotic cells and in the periplasmic space of bacteria. The enzyme within humans is described to have a 32-kDa homodimer, with 1 copper and 1 zinc binding site per 153-amino acid subunit. Each monomer based on a ÃŽ ²-barrel motif and has 2 large functional loops, to which they are called electorstatic and zinc loops. This encases the metal binding region. The crystal structure of metal bound dimeric human SOD1. Copper and zinc ions are shown as blue and orange spheres. The zinc loop is seen in the orange coloured structure and the electrostatic loop in a blue colour. The intrasubunit disulfide bond is seen as red. A hydrogen bond network stabilizes the structure around the metal ions and links the metal-binding sites to portions of the protein (Fig. 1.). Metal binding region in SOD1 is contained within each subunit and has 1 copper and 1 zinc binding site in close enough to share an imidazolate ligand. (4) Figure 1. Structure of Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase or SOD1 (4) Figure 2 displays Iron, Manganese superoxide dismutase also known as superoxide dismutase 2(SOD2) this is located within humans. In this enzyme Fe,Mn- superoxide dismutase can be found embedded in this particular enzyme. This enzyme producess a mitochondrial protein to which it will form a homotetramere. It also binds 1 manganese ion per subunit. This protein binds with the superoxide byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation. it will convert it to hydrogen peroxide and diatomic oxygen. This enzyme can also be located within a bacteria E. coli. Crystal structures have been solved at high resolution for Fe,Mn- Superoxide dismutase. E. coli MnSOD described to have a homodimer, while in humans and T. thermophilus Fe,Mn- Superoxide dismutase are homotetramers. The subunits are composed of 2 domains, an all-a N-terminal domain and an a/b C-terminal domain (Fig. 2.). Known residues that only appear to be in Mn- Superoxide dismutase families, to which are expected to represent groups for cata lytic function. Four of these are H26, H81, D167, and D171 in E. coli Mn-SOD sequence numbering. These are metal ligands. 2 more, H30 and Y34, form a gateway to an active site, and another, E170, is found in the outer sphere of a metal binding site.(5) Figure 2. E. coli Manganese superoxide dismutase displays the homodimer (5) Superoxide dismutase, Extracellular matrix or EC-SOD described to be tetrametric, a hydrophobic glycoprotein. It can be located in the extracellular fluid. This includes the plasma and the extracelluar matrix of tissues. This can be located within the human body; in the heart, pancreas, and lungs. This enzyme shows some similarities with Cu,Zn- Superoxide dismutase. It also suppresses LDL oxidation. It also provides protection of the lungs from inflammation. It can remove H2O2 in the extracellular space. The crystallographic structure of tetrameric human SOD3 enzyme complexed with copper or Cu (orange) and zinc or Zn (grey) cations. The protein secreted inside the extracellular space, forms a glycosylated homotetramere that it is anchored in the extracellular matrix. The cell surfaces through the interaction with heparan sulfate proteoglycan and collagen. Part of the protein is pushed near the C-terminus before it secretes to generate a circulating tetramers that does not interact in th extracellular matrix. (Fig. 3.). (6) Figure 3. Superoxide dismutase, extracellular matrix (6) Mechanism of Catalysis, Kinetics of Reaction and Mode of Regulation The overall reaction mechanism of superoxide dismutase is a ping- pong like reaction. It is because this reaction is reversible. As it displays in this formula: Ezox + O2 + H+ ↔ Ezred(H+) + O2(1)Ezred(H+) + O2 + H+ ↔ Ezox + H2O2 (2) This can be done by Fe, Mn and Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutases (SODs). Where Ezox and Ezred is Cu2+Zn2+ and Cu+Zn2+, Fe3+ and Fe2+, Mn3+ and Mn2+, Ni3+ and Ni2+ to which it is derived from Cu,Zn, Fe and Mn-SODs. This is a simple redox reaction. The display of oxidation and or reduction from oxidative stress and oxidative free radicals. That being said it reduces oxygen and increases hydrogen and vice versa. The first reaction displace an oxidation from the addition of oxygen and reduction of hydrogen. The 1st reaction gives enough energy to produce a 2nd reaction. To which the same process is done, but with the give product. Notice that the reaction displays the predicted outcome of superoxide dismutase to with both produced oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. This shows a stopped-flow kinetic measurements. The peroxide complex forms, it effectively inactivates the enzyme in a balanced state. This peroxide complex is described to be an isomer of the peroxy intermediate. It being formed when a turnover occurred, and the conversion of a dead-end complex demonstrates the solvent isotope effect less. This suggests that the proton transfer to productive peroxy anion complex prevented the formation of the dead-end complex. A close balance between oxidative and reductive rates is displayed to be quite important for an efficient cycle of the enzyme to which a turnover occurred. (Fig. 4.). (7) Figure 4. Manganese-Superoxide dismutase kinetic cycle (5) In the mechanism of superoxide dismutase catalyzed by copper dihistidine complex. An observation of the complex between superoxide and copper dihistidine wasnt observed due to the dismutation if superoxide catalyzed by copper complex requires such a complex. Notably, amino acid residues which are located near the active site have an effect on the enzymatic dismutation. Derivatization of Arg-141 which is positioned only 6 A away from the copper ion, diminishes the activity of the enzyme approximately by 10% of its original value. Also 7 to 8 lysine residues diminishes the activity of the enzyme and also inverts the dependence of its activity in ionic strength. Amino acid residues near the active site play an important role in the Mechanism of superoxide dismutase. Lysine provides an attractive electrostatic field or superoxide anion. While the rest of the residues play a role in directing the superoxide anion to the active site. (8) Associated Diseases and Application Super Oxide Dismutase is an enzyme present in all living cells. This enzyme speeds up a certain chemical reaction in our body. Super Oxide dismutase is usually extracted from cows. In can be taken by the mouth for removing wrinkles and for rebuilding or repairing tissues. Super Oxide dismutase can be also injected in our body. It is usually used in treating gout, sports injuries, osteoarthritis, cancer and lung problems for a newborn baby. It also helps in toleration with radiation therapy. It also helps in treating people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinsons disease, Alzheimers disease and cataracts. Some researchers found that super oxide dismutase has a potential to be used as an anti-aging treatment. (9) Lou Gehrig’s disease, a fatal degenerative condition in which motor neurons are destroyed, is now known to be caused by mutation in gene that codes for cytosolic Cu-Zn isozyme of SOD. Red blood cells are usually protected because they possess high concentrations of Cu-Zn SOD, catalase, and gluthathione peroxidase, and a very active pentose phosphate pathway. (10) REFERENCE â€Å"Superoxide Dismutase†. 2014. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http://www.webmd.com â€Å"Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase is required for cell wall structure and for tolerance for cell wall-perturbing agents in Saccharomyces cerevisiae†. 2010. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089158490200905X?np=y â€Å"Why does CHAGA aid in the relief of: Cancer†. 2005. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http://www.carner.ws/testit â€Å"Copper-zinc superoxide dismutase and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis†. 2005. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/nbio146/readings/Selverstone05.pdf â€Å"Manganese Superoxide Dismutase (MnSOD)† by Jun Luo. 2001. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http://www.healthcare.uiowa.edu/corefacilities/esr/education/2001/3/LuoJ-paper3.pdf â€Å"Superoxide dismutase 3, extracellular (SOD3) variants and lung function†. 2009. Retrieved 06 September 2014 from http://physiolgenomics.physiology.org/content/37/3/260 â€Å"Superoxide dismutases: active sites that save, but a protein that kills† by Miller, A. 2004. Retrieved 06 September 2014 from http://www.chem.uky.edu/research/miller/afm_papers/1.pdf â€Å"On the mechanism of action of superoxide dismutase: a theoretical study†. 1984. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00331a048?journalCode=jacsat â€Å"Superoxide Dismutase Benefits One of the Most Important Things You Can Do To Live Longer†. 2011. Retrieved 06 September 2014 from http://undergroundhealthreporter.com/superoxide-dismutase-benefits-help-you-live-longer/#ixzz3CbtGdYqF Mckee, T. Mckee, J. R. (2003) Biochemistry: the molecular basis of life 3rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved 14 August 2014 Weapons Of Mass Destruction | Terrorism Weapons Of Mass Destruction | Terrorism The cause of concern for any terrorists attack since the post cold war era has been unprecedented. Such concern has increased of late as the disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union has left many nuclear, chemical and biological weapons in the hands of nations, who are finding it hard to ensure their two ends meet and to secure these weapons. So, these weapons are vulnerable in the hands of these nations, as any terrorist organisation would be looking out to materialise on such issues and acquire these Weapons of Mass Destruction. The chapters so far has brought out the various facets of terrorism using Weapon of Mass Destructions. Though the terrorists activities or incidents involving Weapon of Mass Destructions is miniscule as compared to incidents involving conventional weapons, any attack by terrorists using Weapon of Mass Destructions cannot be overlooked. The growing high end incident violence and the terrorists willingness to inflict mass casualty to general public is a pointer in the direction where terrorism is headed. The weapon of mass destruction is the buzz word for the terrorists, as with small effort, they inflict a larger damage. With the disintegration of the erstwhile Soviet Union, fissile material or Chemical and Biological agent reaching a terrorists hand is not a remote possibility, especially for a state sponsored or well funded terrorist groups. In respect of India, the recent turmoil in Pakistan and the terrorist groups not recognising the government is a reminder of a Weapon of Mass Destructions attack in India becoming a reality. The terrorists can exploit the use of Weapons of Mass Destructions by either theft/ buying it from one of the states which is either in need of money or are harbouring terrorism. It is important that the world realise today that the threat from Weapon of Mass Destructions use by terrorist is imminent, and we should not be caught off guard and wanting in this regard. The starting point will include developing comprehensive plan involving the understanding the nuances of use of Weapon of Mass Destructions by terrorists and the groups. The starting point in this case would be to have something on lines of Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), as started by the USA. We need to identify the terrorists groups, which are most likely to use Weapon of Mass Destructions, and ban the outfit, freeze their funding and try and catch the leaders of these groups. India on their hand can start of on this mission, by firstly increasing the vigilance on the borders, increasing public awareness, and above reinforcing the existing security at its nuclear, chemical and biological plants, where a terrorist group may lay their hand on. Amongst other things which has aspired terrorism, nationalist terrorism, religious extremism and aggressive separatism are the most significant one. Nationalist terrorism is employed by a group of people with a common identity to achieve independence from the ruling power. Religious extremism is driven by the belief that violent actions against any state is not only fulfilling the Gods will, but also freeing mankind from evil in the world. The poor countries of North Africa and Arab states are of the opinion that the western world doesnt want these countries to become rich. The liberal and open economy of developed nations is often taken as being against these poor nations, thus leading to religious extremism. To ensure that such kind of terrorism does not spring up, the gap between the rich and poor nation needs to be reduced. The modern terrorism frightens people with its ability to employ high technological weapon such as Biological, Chemical, or even Nuclear devices. The use of biological agent cannot ruled out, no matter how much repugnant it may be. Biological agents have been known to have been made few state actors, and it could have easily been passed on to the non state actors, fighting for similar cause. If a biological threat was not taken seriously, it would be a bad bargain for any state. Reasonable protective measures would demand increased attention. Chemical weapons or agents are an effective military tool and can be easily be defined as an instrument of terror. Many countries have since end of the World War II has invested in the chemical agents however most of them claim to have discarded these weapons. The chemical weapon use by terrorists may be less effective as compared to other Weapons of Mass destruction, but it will have a huge impact on the morale and psychological effect, in addition to political impact. The basic technology for development of chemical agents would be same as that required for civilian use. This dual use technology for chemical agent pose a significant danger if they are diverted for weapons production, and any improper or illegal use cannot be found out easily. Bio terrorism is more likely than ever before and far more threatening than explosive or chemical. Preventing and countering bio terrorism is extremely difficult. Detection or interdiction of those intending to use bio weapon is next to impossible. Terrorists are likely to use the rapidity of casualty reached due to unexpected and non available diagnostic and therapeutic support needed. We are ill prepared to deal with such terrorist attacks. A chemical release is far more manageable than the biological challenge posed by Small pox or Anthrax. The spectre of Biological weapon is an ugly one, every bit as grim as that of a nuclear winter. The resource availability in the poor countries being at premium shall make them a vulnerable target that shall be unable to cope with the magnitude of such casualties. On the immediate horizon knowing well that what little can be done under such attacks, a mammoth task lies before us and a cruel opportunity with terrorist groups to exploit it to the ir advantage. The chances of a terrorist group using a nuclear weapon is less when compared to chemical and biological weapon, but any use of nuclear weapon would be profound and disastrous for a state. All countries need to be vigilant in monitoring any proliferation of nuclear weapon technology to the terrorist groups. A terrorist group would not like to use a Weapon of Mass Destruction in the first instance. This is because in destroying the entire population and devastating societies, these terrorists organisations would lose everything they have fought for so far. However, the use of such weapons by self destructive terrorists or those who are religious fanatic cannot be overlooked. The change in the nature of the threat requires changes in the way we organize our resources to provide for the common defence. To cope with the new threat will require new doctrines and innovative technologies, improved intelligence and law enforcement, and better cooperation with like-minded governments. The three-pronged strategy I have described is both within our reach and within our budget. Of course we will have to refocus our priorities, and more funding will be required. But the threat of terrorist attack on American cities involving chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons has reached the point where a bold and vigorous effort is required. This is a clear and present danger to the American people that requires a timely response. Historically, much less attention has been paid to the CB terrorist threat than to its nuclear counterpart, despite the cogency of the argument that the latter is less likely to occur than the former. In the wake of the Tokyo subway attack, this has begun to change. In fact, the past couple of years have witnessed a good deal of intergovernmental consultation and enhanced domestic security measures planned or put into place throughout the Western world. Whether these will be sufficient or timely enough to prevent the next large-scale CB terrorist incident or at least to mitigate its consequences to an acceptable degree, however, remains to be seen. A robust WMD elimination capability is what all the countries require to meeting this threat and protecting from any catastrophic disaster. The hostile countries or terrorists groups would not think twice before using WMD against any country if it is assured that the country is not prepared to counter the threat.

How do Gold Cadillac and Country Lovers differ in their presentation Es

How do Gold Cadillac and Country Lovers differ in their presentation of Prejudice? Both Mildred Taylor (Gold Cadillac) and Nadine Gordimer (Country Lovers) grew up in cultures where racism was a part of their everyday life. This theme of racism is reflected strongly in their stories. Mildred Taylor’s experience of racism in the Southern States of America is reflected in the themes and setting of her writing. She was born in 1943, Jackson, Mississippi, the strongest racial prejudice sate found in America. In many of her college preparatory classes, Mildred Taylor was the only black student. She often found herself painfully embarrassed by the lacklustre portrait of black people as presented in history class. Similarly, Nadine Gordimer’s life in South Africa allowed her to witness first hand the human effects of segregation and state-sanctioned racism, during the Apartheid. From her early childhood, Nadine Gordimer witnessed how the white minority increasingly weakened the rights of the black majority. She states in ‘The lying days’, which is based closely on her own life, that she had a â€Å"growing disaffection toward the narrow-mindlessness of a small town life†. In the Gold Cadillac, the author focuses on the themes of racial prejudice through family life. By using dialogue, the reader senses the closeness of the family; we know they are secure and loved, â€Å"Wilma and I hugged our father with our joy. My uncles came from the house and my aunts, carrying their babies, came out to.† Mildred Taylor and her father had a special relationship, â€Å"From my father I learned to respect the past, to respect my own heritage and myself†, this is a quote from Mildred Taylor. I therefore think, Mildred Taylor decided... ...er’s to feel and think how she feels and thinks. We see how family is important to Mildred Taylor, because, the father gave up the Gold Cadillac to protect his family. The Gold Cadillac is represented as America, it may seem to be a country of freedom, but it really is a country of racism and prejudice. The author of Gold Cadillac allows the readers to engage with the author. Because the narrator is a young girl, the story becomes more truthful, this helps the reader to create a more vivid image of the Gold Cadillac. Finally, both stories have a strong theme of racial prejudice. They explore deal with and present these tensions in a strikingly different way, both stories allows the reader’s to engage with the author. We learn how both Mildred Taylor and Nadine Gordimer’s historical background help contribute to the stories, bringing the text to life.

Intimate Violence and Sexual Abuse: Lived Experiences Essay

Abraham Maslow’s (1970) Hierarchy of Needs listed love and belongingness as the third level of human need (Kozier et al., 2006). Indeed, among the most basic needs of human beings is â€Å"belongingness.† Thus, humans go into intimate relationships to fulfill that need for love. Intimate relationships cover a wide range of interactions. It may include marital relationships, but it is not confined to these. It may also include formerly married partners, dating partners, and live-in partners  (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2006). Unfortunately, though, instead of fulfilling the need for love and belonging, some of these intimate relationships cause more harm than good. Sadly, a lot of abuse and violence occur within the supposed â€Å"shelter† of these relationships. In US alone, 4.8 million cases of physical assaults and rapes recorded each year occurred within intimate relationships  (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). With this, the study aims to examine the lived experiences of individuals in an abusive intimate relationship, focusing on its perceived cause, and its effect on the abused individual. However, it is the study’s ultimate hope that with the data gathered; it may provide and serve as a basis for preventive and curative interventions for intimate relationship violence.   More specifically, this study aims to answer the following questions: 1. What are the most common reasons and risk factors for abuse as perceived by individuals experiencing intimate violence? 2. What are the perceived physical and emotional/psychological health consequences of intimate relationship violence and sexual abuse on the abused individual? Literature Review Intimate partner abuse or violence, in its most basic sense, is defined as a maltreatment occuring between two non-blood-related individuals interacting in an intimate relationship (CDC, 2006). The term â€Å"intimate relationship† is most commonly associated with marriage. However, it can also refer to any relationship between individuals not related by blood or consanguinity. Therefore, intimate relationships also cover â€Å"dating or courtship relationships, relationships where partners live together, relationships where two people have children in common but are no longer formally involved with one another, and marital relationships  (Mouradin, 2000).† And in all these relations, intimate violence or sexual abuse can occur. Intimate partner violence manifests itself in different forms. Physical abuse involves the actual use of force to inflict physical harm. It may include hitting, cutting, slapping, choking, spanking, kicking, hair pulling, pushing, and others  (Mouradin, 2000). Emotional abuse, on the other hand, involves verbal and non-verbal acts that inflict harm on the other, without the actual use of physical force. It can include threats, yelling, swearing, insulting or belittling, and other treatments that lack the respect deserved by the other partner (Mouradin, 2000). However, although physical and emotional abuse are most common, there are also other forms of abuse that exist. Economic abuse entails the deprivation of a partner’s right for financial independence. This type of abuse achieves the same result as emotional abuse by inflicting fear and dependence in the abused individual  (Mouradin, 2000). Another type of intimate partner abuse includes social isolation. Social isolation refers to prohibiting a partner to go out, socialize and maintain social support networks  (Mouradin, 2000). Still, perhaps among the worst kind of intimate partner violence is sexual abuse. Intimate sexual violence includes a â€Å"range of coercive behaviors from suggestive comments to forced intercourse  (Allen, Raimer, & Rothman, 2004).† Although research studies on intimate partner violence are limited, surveys have shown that this problem has increased in prevalence over the years. In a national survey conducted by the National Violence Against Women, it was revealed that 0.3% of males and 7.7% of females experience in their lifetime an attempted or consumated rape by an intimate partner  (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). In addition, statistics suggest that Hispanic and Native American women are at a greater risk for intimate partner sexual abuse  (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). Further, a study conducted by Campbell et al. (2002), revealed that out of 2,005 women participating in an organization for health maintenance, around 361 reported that they were forced into sexual activities at least once in their lifetime (Campbell et al., 2002). Overall, an estimated number of five women and one man out of 1,000 individuals, are documented as new cases of intimate sexual abuse cases per year  (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). Survey organizations point out a lot of factors causing intimate sexual   abuse. Among these factors include unemployment, drug or alcohol use, low educational attainment, early onset of sexual experience, and a lot others. Also, another cause of intimate sexual abuse is the existence of myths on rape (i.e. some people deserve or benefit from rape), and the idea that rape can serve as a proof of power or dominance  (Allen, Raimer, & Rothman, 2004). In all these, women respond to sexual abuse in different manners. However, most commonly, victims of intimate sexual violence sustain psychological trauma and negative effects, including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder  (Allen, Raimer, & Rothman, 2004). Methodology Primarily, this study utilized a qualitative research design. Qualitattive research focus on the quality, rather than the quantity, of a human experience. This study design gives emphasis on the â€Å"inherent depth of humans, and the ability of humans to shape and create their own experiences  (Polit & Beck, 2006).† This study follows the phenomenological qualitataive research tradition, by attempting to understand the social context in which intimate partner abuse occur  (Polit & Beck, 2006). Twenty individuals experiencing intimate violence and sexual abuse were chosen for this study through snowball or network sampling. All respondents were aged 18 y/o and above, with mixed genders: 17 females and three males. Race was not expressly considered among the respondents, but some cultural variations were noted. After being ensured of confidentiality and anonimity, the respondents gave their consent to participate in the study. Data For this study, data was collected through secondary data analysis and surveys. In secondary data analysis, previously existing data related to the study is examined. Data may come from journals, books, records, magazines, documents, previous studies, and others. This is done to establish a baseline and support for the study  (Polit & Beck, 2006). Surveys, on the other hand, are nonexperimental studies involving polls. In here, researchers use questionnaires, inteviews, and checklists to gather data  (Polit & Beck, 2006). For this study, after the analysis of secondary data, a simple questionaire was constructed. The questionnaire focused on the causes and perceived health consequences of intimate violence and sexual abuse on the abused individual. It was administered among the respondents and then was followed by an interviewed to expound on each specific topic. Hypotheses This study aims to prove the following hypotheses: 1. The commonly perceived causes/risk factors for intimate abuse are drug and alcohol use, unemployment, childhood abuse history, conflicts, and stressful life events. 2. The perceived physical health consequences of intimate violence and sexual abuse on abused individuals are wounds and lacerations, fracture, fatigue, nausea and vomiting, bleeding, emaciated body state, eye/facial damage, and abdominal injuries. 3. The perceived emotional/psychological health consequences of intimate relationship violence and sexual abuse include post-traumatic stress disorder, low self-esteem, trust issues, depression, eating and sleeping disorders, and unsafe sexual behavior. Discussion and Interpretation This chapter deals with the discussion of the data gathered from the survey and analysis. Perceived Causes/Risk Factors of Intimate Abuse After the data was tallied and analyzed, it was revealed that most of the causes of abuse among intimate relationships are personal and situational, although some societal factors may also come into play. It must also be remembered that abuse is the effect of the interaction of multiple factors, and not just the effect of a single event or factor. In the survey, 80% of the respondents said that their partners abuse them due to the influences of alcohol, while 55% responded that the abuse was due to the partner’s drug use. This was supported by the World Health Organization’s (WHO) World Report on Violence and Health that there is a direct relationship between a man’s drinking frequency, and a woman’s increased risk for being a victim of violence (World Health Organization (WHO), 2005). Respondents also confirmed that unemployment was another factor for intimate violence. Nine out of 20 respondents said that their partners abused them because he/she has no job or is having a hard time finding one. This was verified by Allen, Raimer & Rothman (2004), who listed unemployement as a cause or factor for intimate abuse (Allen, Raimer, & Rothman, 2004). Another reason agreed on by respondents are marital or relationship conflicts. Ten respondents claimed that they fight about a lot of things. Indeed, the WHO enumerated the following as parts of conflict that cause intimate abuse: lack of obedience on wife’s part, arguing back to the partner, questioning the man’s actions, refusing sex and the woman’s suspected infidelity (WHO, 2005). Further, five respondents added that their partners beat them due to a sexual compulsion/ dysfunction. These dysfunctions may also be attributed to personality disorders that affect a person’s sexual behavior. Although research on this topic is limited,   it was included as a risk factor for abuse by the WHO (WHO, 2005). However, a most serious cause and risk factor for intimate abuse pointed out by respondents was the presence of a history of chilhood abuse. Ninety percent of the respondents reported that their abusive partners were abused emotionally, physically, and sexually as children. According to the WHO, history of violence in the family of origin is a powerful risk factor for intimate violence and sexual abuse. Studies all over the world showed that â€Å"rates of abuse were higher among women whose husbands had either been beaten as children or had witnessed their mothers beaten (WHO, 2005).† In addition to this, victims of intimate abuse themselves presented a history of abuse as children. Sixteen respondents claimed that they were abused as children. In an interview, a respondent revealed that this history of abuse made her feel â€Å"like abuse was a normal thing, since [she] grew up with it.† Other factors pointed out was lack of education, lack of information on rights as a wife or partner, and the acceptability of intimate violence as a social norm. Among the respondents, abuse was greater among individuals who did not finish high school and among those with low self-esteem. Around 45% of the respondents did not finish high school, while 70% claimed that â€Å"they were ugly and worthless.† Abuse was also higher in those that experienced a recent stressful life event, and in some cultures that considered the wife as a â€Å"property† of the husband. Perceived Physical Effects of Intimate Abuse Depending on the prevalence of these causes, the severity of abuse can vary. However, the effects are all the same. Among the respondents, 100% of them reported that after each abuse, there were cuts, wounds, bruises and tears in their body, especially in the vagina or anus. Seventy-five percent of the respondents reported abdominal or chest injuries and disorders, 60% reported the presence of fracture, 55% reported vaginal/anal bleeding, 50% reported fatigue or tiredness, 35% reported nausea, vomiting and eye/facial damage, and around 25% claimed that the abuse led to an emaciated body state.Still, some added that the sexual abuse led to unwanted pregnancies and that the intimate violence caused miscarriage or stillbirths in some pregnant women. This finding was validate by the WHO’s report which enumerated physical effects of abuse very much similar to those found in the study (WHO, 2005).

Modern family values

Family dynamics have rapidly been changing and evolving over the last two hundred years, with far-reaching consequences on individuals and societies as a whole. Whereas before the industrial revolution, children used to live and work with their parents within the home to learn the family trade that would support them and future offspring, now parents spend a good majority of their days at work and children at school. Additionally, there is no longer a â€Å"normal† family model of two heterosexual spouses and their children to comprise the average home. As noted by economist Nancy Barret inDecline of the Family: Conservative, Liberal and Feminist Views, there is no longer one family model that is more dominant than another. (Giezle, Janet D. , 88) The opinions regarding the reasons for such familial shifts are as diverse as the many family models now present. While the opinions of the reasons for such changes in the family may differ, there is a consensus that such changes cor relate with the general upward trend of violence, anti-social behavior, divorce rates, teen pregnancies and addiction habits among parents and especially children.Conservatives argue that such negative behavior epresents a moral decline perpetuated by broken homes and poverty caused by young, unwed parents. They offer a return to traditional family standards and values as a solution to such problems. to such problems, a reversion to a traditional family model is not a viable solution for every family and, therefore, the solution lies in building up communal support for all family types by stressing the importance of families and deemphasizing the individual.Using these two perspectives put forth in Giezle's Decline of the Family, this paper will analyze a true narrative of my younger sister who, after failed marriage, attempted to raise a son, attend university and procure a Job after graduation. I have four siblings, and my sister, Beth, is the youngest. Our mother was a single mot her who supported her five children by, first, relying on government support through welfare and charities, until she was able to gain a Job working night shift for the post office. The Job offered long, exhausting hours but Just enough money that we no longer required government assistance.Though my mother was able to support us materially, she was still often stressed over money matters, running a household nd trying to meet the needs of her children. Our home environment was very stressful. Our mother needed to sleep during the day, so household responsibilities were left to us children. Though we were children, it was expected of us to grow up rather quickly, as we had to rely on and look after each other. Emotions were put aside in favor of getting by, paycheck to paycheck. By the time each of us became a teenager, it was expected that we would find a part-time Job to help cover some of our own expenses. lerical position, my brothers and I into the military, and Beth, surprisin gly, decided to elope with her oyfriend, who had also Joined the military. It was, as she has reflected on it, an act of desperation to escape a stressful home and the fear of no Job prospects and absolutely no way to fund a college education. Her husband was trained by the military in basic mechanical duties on military planes and they lived in Texas for a year before they expected their child. With his military contract up, they returned to the Pacific Northwest with the idea of him finding steady work to support their family.The work was hard to find. The mechanical skills her husband had acquired in the military did ot transfer to the civilian world. Temporary, part-time Jobs were not a reliable source of income to prepare for their child. My sister took up work in a restaurant right up until she gave birth in order to help with the finances. After she gave birth, the question of whether to return to work raised several issues. His income alone was not enough on which to live. T herefore, they needed a second income. However, they could not afford to hire a sitter to cover those work hours.Further, they were informed by the state that the additional income would raise them above assistance level for food and edical benefits. They were in a catch-22, so to speak. They needed to earn more money, but if they did, they would second income. The strain of money issues, raising a newborn, and the typical relationship problems that accompany young people and rash decisions, brought their marriage to an end when their son was Just one. My sister was in a very difficult position. She had a son to raise, but on no place to live, no college education, and very little work experience. She lived with me while she filed for state benefits.Over the course of eight months, she secured an apartment, enrolled in chool and began the work-study program there to earn a bit of money. However, the state assistance would only continue if she were in a vocational program at the comm unity college. The incomes of such vocations threatened to put her back in the same predicament she and her husband had been in†not enough to get by, but Just enough that the state could offer no assistance. She gave up the state assistance and her apartment to move back home with our mother, who agreed to baby-sit while my sister attended the University of Portland and worked on campus there.She still eceived medical insurance for her son, and a small stipend for food. After four years, she graduated and landed a Job that now supports her and her son. It would not have been remotely possible without the support of state programs, generous student grants and constant support from her family members. From a conservative's perspective, issues such as teen pregnancy, divorce and couples having children while being unable to support them are all marked signs that society has shifted from traditional family values.A conservative would argue that the moral declination of society is exemplified in the selfishness of individuals ho place little to no value on the family unity. Further, they argue that the cultural attitudes toward unwed parents and those on state assistance have become too tolerant, rewarding them with welfare assistance programs that do nothing but lower community standards and teach dependence instead of self-reliance. (Giezle, 77) Cons

Sociology and Answer Essay Example

Sociology and Answer Essay Example Sociology and Answer Paper Sociology and Answer Paper Essay Topic: We Real Cool 1. Sociological Perspective Sociology is defined as: | a. | the methodological analysis of groups and individuals. | | | b. | the scientific analysis of premodern people. | | | c. | the academic discipline that examines individual human behavior. | | | d. | the systematic study of human society and social interaction. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 2| According to sociologist C. Wright Mills, the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society is referred to as: | a. | the reality perception. | | | b. | the sociological imagination. | | | c. | the conflict perception. | | | d. the symbolic interaction approach. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 3| French philosopher ________ is credited with having coined the term sociology to describe a new science that would engage in the study of society. | a. | Emile Durkheim| | | b. | Herbert Spencer| | | c. | Max Weber| | | d. | Auguste Comte| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 4| In Society in America, ________ examined religion, politics, child rearing, slavery, and immigration to the United States, paying special attention to social distinctions based on class, race, and gender. | a. | Harriet Martineau| | | b. | Auguste Comte| | c. | Jane Addams| | | d. | Herbert Spencer| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 5| French sociologist Emile Durkheim observed that rapid social change and a more specialized division of labor produce strain in society; these strains lead to a breakdown in traditional organization, values, and authority and to a dramatic increase in: | a. | cultural conflict. | | | b. | social disorganization. | | | c. | anomie. | | | d. | social solidarity. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 6| This German economist and philosopher stressed that history is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces . He believed that class conflict is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. | a. | Karl Marx| | | b. | Frederick Schmidt| | | c. | Max Weber| | | d. | Emile Durkheim| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 7| The first department of sociology in the United States was established ________, where the faculty was instrumental in starting the American Sociological Society (now known as the American Sociological Association). | a. | at Harvard University| | | b. | at the University of Chicago| | | c. | at Yale University| | | d. | at the University of California at Berkeley| | | status:  not answered  () orrect:  b your answer:  | 8| ________ perspectives are based on the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system. | a. | Conflict| | | b. | Functionalist| | | c. | Interactionist| | | d. | Developmental| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 9| Debbie is interested in how changes in society are related to homelessness. She is examining how the movement of factory jobs from the United States to overseas locations has contributed to the increase in the number of homeless people. Debbie is conducting a: | a. | macrolevel analysis. | | | b. | microlevel analysis. | | | c. | mesolevel analysis. | | d. | transactional-level analysis. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 10| Sociologists applying a ________ framework to the study of consumerism would primarily focus on a microlevel analysis of peoples face-to-face interactions. | a. | functionalist| | | b. | conflict| | | c. | symbolic interactionist| | | d. | postmodern| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 2. Sociological Research Methods Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behavior through ________, which results in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and common sense in understanding society. a. | commonsense ideas| | | b. | research| | | c. | myths| | | d. | scientific laws| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 2| A trademark of sociology involves the unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and official interpretations of society. This process is called: | a. | debunking. | | | b. | reformative. | | | c. | demystifying. | | | d. | deductive reasoning. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 3| The relationship between theory and research has been referred to as a continuous cycle. The theory and research cycle consists of two approaches. In the ________ approach, the researcher begins with a theory and uses research to test the theory. | a. | normative| | | b. | inductive| | | c. | deductive| | | d. | explanatory| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 4| Researchers in one study examined the effects of church membership, divorce, and migration on suicide rates in the United States and concluded that suicide rates are typically higher where divorce and migration rates are higher and church membership is lower. This is a(n) example of ________. | a. | quantitative research| | | b. | observational research| | | c. | qualitative research| | d. | explanatory research| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 5| ________ are the abstract elements representing some aspect of the world in simplified form (such as social integration or loneliness). | a. | Operational definitions| | | b. | Principles| | | c. | Theories| | | d. | Concepts| | | status:  not answered  () co rrect:  d your answer:  | 6| Suppose that your goal is to earn an A in this sociology course. Your professor may have created a(n) ________, by specifying an A as earning a test average of 90 percent or above. | a. | qualitative variable| | | b. | statement of correlation| | c. | interpretative statement| | | d. | operational definition| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 7| As a researcher, you must decide which population persons about whom you want to be able to draw conclusions will be observed or questioned. In ________, every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected. | a. | probability sampling| | | b. | scattered sampling| | | c. | random sampling| | | d. | rotational sampling| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 8| ________ research is likely to be used when the research question does ot easily lend itself to numbers and statistical methods. | a. | Formulation| | | b. | Quantitative| | | c. | Conventional| | | d. | Qualitative| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 9| Self-administered questionnaires have certain strengths. Which of the following was  not  identified as a strength of self-administered questionnaires? | a. | They are relatively simple and inexpensive to administer. | | | b. | They have a very high response rate. | | | c. | They allow for rapid data collection and analysis. | | | d. | They permit respondents to remain anonymous. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  b our answer:  | 10| The American Sociological Association requires that sociologists adhere to all of the following,  except: | a. | researchers are allowed to use any means necessary in conducting their research projects. | | | b. | researchers must maintain objectivity and integrity in their research findings by disclosing the findings even if they do not support their views. | | | c. | researchers must protect confident ial information provided by their participants. | | | d. | researchers must acknowledge research collaboration and assistance they receive from others and disclose all sources of financial support. | | | tatus:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 3. Culture ________ is the knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society. | a. | Social organization| | | b. | Society| | | c. | Technology| | | d. | Culture| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 2| Sociologists define ________ as the knowledge, techniques, and tools that make it possible for people to transform resources into usable forms, and the knowledge and skills required to use them after they are developed. | a. | industrialization| | b. | technology| | | c. | material culture| | | d. | cybernetics| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 3| All of the following statements regarding cultural universals are true,  except: | a. | cultural universals include appearance, activities, social institutions, and customary practices. | | | b. | some customs and practices are found in all cultures. | | | c. | the specific forms of cultural universals vary from one group to another and from one time to another within the same group. | | | d. | sociologists are in agreement that cultural universals are the result of functional necessity. | | | tatus:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 4| From the ________ perspective, a shared language is essential to a common culture; language is a stabilizing force in society. | a. | postmodernist| | | b. | conflict| | | c. | symbolic interactionist| | | d. | functionalist| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 5| According to sociologist Robin Williams, a belief in the idea that the American way of life is best illustrates the core value of ________. | a . | racism and group superiority| | | b. | equality| | | c. | progress and material comfort| | | d. | freedom and liberty| | | status:  not answered  () orrect:  a your answer:  | 6| Eric is attending classes at the local college. He believes in the idea of success, but he does not spend as much time as he could studying to achieve a higher grade point average. His behavior is an example of ________ culture. | a. | universal| | | b. | ideal| | | c. | material| | | d. | real| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 7| Values provide ideals or beliefs about behavior but do not state explicitly how we should behave. ________ are established rules of behavior or standards of conduct. | a. | Sanctions| | | b. | Norms| | | c. | Folkways| | | d. | Mores| | | tatus:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 8| All parts of culture do not change at the same pace. Sociologist William Ogburn referred to this disparity as ________, a gap between the technical development of a society and its moral and legal institutions. | a. | cultural division| | | b. | cultural diffusion| | | c. | cultural leveling| | | d. | cultural lag| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 9| The popularity of pinatas in China, Italy, Spain, Mexico, the United States, and other nations is an example of: | a. | cultural diversity. | | | b. | cultural discovery. | | | c. | cultural diffusion. | | d. | cultural lag. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 10| During the Olympic Games, the spirits of nationalism and patriotism encourage people to think of their own nation as the best. This illustrates the principle of: | a. | self-centeredness. | | | b. | ethnocentrism. | | | c. | authoritarianism. | | | d. | cultural relativism. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 4. Socialization ________ is the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society. a. | Acculturation| | | b. | Reification| | | c. | Self-representation| | | d. | Socialization| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 2| The case of Genie, an isolated child, illustrates that: | a. | children who have experienced extreme isolation do not live long enough to reach adulthood. | | | b. | isolated children actually can recover quickly from any physical damages. | | | c. | children who experience social isolation and neglect may be defined as retarded when they reach adulthood. | | | d. | with proper therapy, children who have been isolated can become a part of the mainstream. | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 3| The basic assumption in ________ psychoanalytic approach is that human behavior and personality originate from unconscious forces within individuals. | a. | George Herbert Meads| | | b. | Jean Piagets| | | c. | Si gmund Freuds| | | d. | Charles Horton Cooleys| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 4| Drawing from psychologist Sigmund Freuds theory, ________ identified eight psychosocial stages of development, reasoning that each stage is accompanied by a crisis or potential crisis that involves transitions in social relationships. a. | George Herbert Mead| | | b. | Jean Piaget| | | c. | Charles Horton Cooley| | | d. | Erik Erikson| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 5| In order to assess womens stages of moral development, Carol Gilligan conducted a study of pregnant women who were contemplating having an abortion. According to Gilligan, women in the first stage of moral development were primarily motivated by: | a. | a desire to do what is best for themselves and for others. | | | b. | their responsibility to others. | | | c. | selfish concerns. | | | d. | anger. | | | status:  not answered  () orrect:  c your answer:  | 6| F our components make up our self-concept: the  active  self is best reflected in which of the following? | a. | I am good at soccer. | | | b. | I am nice to others. | | | c. | I am tall. | | | d. | I believe in world peace. | | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  | 7| George Herbert Meads concept of the ________ refers to the childs awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the childs subculture. | a. | secondary other| | | b. | generalized other| | | c. | perceived other| | | d. | significant other| | status:  not answered  () correct:  b your answer:  | 8| According to psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, in the ________, a child is engaged in immediate face-to-face interactions with the childs parents, siblings, and other immediate family members. | a. | macrosystem| | | b. | exosystem| | | c. | microsystem| | | d. | mesosystem| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  c your answer:  | 9| In the ________ pe rspective, when we examine the context in which family life takes place, we see that grandparents and other relatives have a strong influence on how parents socialize their children. In turn, the childrens behavior may have an effect on how parents, siblings, and grandparents get along with one another. | a. | conflict| | | b. | functionalist| | | c. | postmodern| | | d. | symbolic interactionist| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  d your answer:  | 10| ________ is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society. | a. | Gender socialization| | | b. | Cultural acquisition| | | c. | Developmental maturation| | | d. | Exchange theory| | | status:  not answered  () correct:  a your answer:  |

Gilligans Ethics of Care

Gilligan's Ethics of Care Psychologist Carol Gilligan is best known for her innovative but controversial ideas on the moral development of women. Gilligan emphasized what she called an â€Å"ethics of care† in womens moral reasoning. She placed her approach in direct opposition to Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which she claimed was biased against females and emphasized an â€Å"ethics of justice.† Key Takeaways: Gilligan's Ethics of Care Carol Gilligan believed women’s morality arose from real-life dilemmas, not hypothetical ones. She came up with three stages of moral development that emphasize an ethics of care.Pre-conventional stage: women are focused on the self.Conventional stage: women have come to focus on their responsibilities towards others. Post-conventional stage: a woman has learned to see herself and others as interdependent. Gilligan developed her thinking in response to the stages of moral development outlined by Lawrence Kohlberg, which Gilligan claimed were gender-biased and emphasized an ethics of justice. However, research by other scholars has shown that two moral orientations exist- one towards care and one towards justice. Origin of Gilligan’s Ethics of Care In 1967, a few years after receiving her Ph.D. from Harvard, Gilligan started a teaching position there. She also became a research assistant for Lawrence Kohlberg, who developed a popular theory of moral development. Gilligan’s work was a response to the gender bias she saw in Kohlberg’s approach.   Kohlberg’s theory of moral development included six stages. At its highest stage, an individual develops a deeply held, self-defined set of moral principles that one wishes to apply equally to all people. Kohlberg cautioned that not everyone would reach this sixth stage of moral development. In subsequent studies, he found that women tended to score at lower stages of moral development than men. However, Gilligan pointed out that the research Kohlberg did to develop his stage theory only included young white male participants. As a result, Gilligan argued that men werent morally superior to women. Instead, the reason women scored lower in Kohlberg’s stages than men was that Kohlberg’s work discounted the voices of women and girls. She outlined this position in detail in her seminal book In a Different Voice, which she published in 1982. Gilligan decided to study the development of moral reasoning in women herself and found that women thought about morality differently than men. Men, as exemplified by Kohlberg’s theory, tend to look at morality through a lens of rights, laws, and universally applied principles. This â€Å"ethics of justice† has traditionally been viewed as an ideal in patriarchal Western cultures because it is championed by men. However, women tend to look at morality through a lens of relationships, compassion, and responsibility to others. This â€Å"ethics of care† has often been overlooked because of the limited power women have typically held in Western societies. Gilligan illustrated this difference in the moral reasoning of males and females by articulating the thinking of a boy and a girl participants responses to the â€Å"Heinz dilemma† from Kohlberg’s studies. In this dilemma, a man named Heinz must choose whether or not to steal medicine he can’t afford to save the life of his dying wife. The boy participant believes Heinz should take the medicine because the right to life is more important than the right to property. On the other hand, the girl participant doesn’t believe Heinz should take the medicine because it could land him in jail for stealing, leaving his wife alone when she needs him. As this example demonstrates, the ethics of justice is impartial. Principles must always be applied in the same way, even if that means it negatively impacts the individual or someone they’re close to. On the other hand, the ethics of care is contextual. Morality isn’t based on abstract principles but on real relationships. Given these gender differences, Gilligan proposed that women don’t stop developing morally at lower levels than men, but that women’s moral development simply continues along a different trajectory than the ethics of justice measured by Kohlberg’s scale. Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development Gilligan outlined her own stages of moral development based on an ethics of care. She used the same levels Kohlberg did but based her stages on interviews with women. Specifically, because Gilligan believed women’s morality arose from real-life dilemmas, not hypothetical ones, she interviewed women trying to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy. Her work yielded the following stages:   Stage 1: Pre-Conventional At the pre-conventional stage, women are focused on the self and emphasize their own self-interests over other considerations. Stage 2: Conventional At the conventional stage, women have come to focus on their responsibilities towards others. They are concerned with care for others and being selfless, but this position is defined by society or other people in the woman’s orbit. Stage 3: Post-Conventional At the highest stage of moral development, the post-conventional stage, a woman has learned to see herself and others as interdependent. These women have control of their lives and take responsibility for their decisions, a big part of which is the choice to care for others. Gilligan said that some women may not reach the highest stage of moral development. In addition, she didnt attach specific ages to her stages. However, she did claim that it wasnt experience that drove a woman through the stages, but cognitive ability and the woman’s evolving sense of self. Can the Ethics of Care Extend to Men? While the ethics of care was developed based on research with women, Gilligan has insisted that the ethics of care and the ethics of justice aren’t mutually exclusive. Instead of focusing on gender, Gilligan preferred to focus on the different themes brought up by these two perspectives on morality. Although this meant that men could develop an ethics of care, Gilligan indicated it was likely more common in women. Research by other scholars has backed up some of Gilligan’s assertions. On the one hand, studies have indicated that the gender differences on Kohlberg’s stages aren’t especially pronounced, suggesting that there may not be a strong gender-bias in Kohlberg’s work. On the other, studies have shown that people have two moral orientations that line up with Gilligan’s ethics of justice and ethics of care. And studies have found that the moral orientation towards care is stronger in females. Thus, while both men and women can and will develop both orientations, one may be more influential in men than in women and vice versa. Furthermore, research suggests that as people age and reach the highest stages of moral development, the two orientations may be more equally represented in the individual, regardless of gender. Critiques Despite the evidence for some of Gilligan’s ideas, they have also been criticized for a number of reasons. One critique states that Gilligan’s observations are the result of societal expectations of gender rather than differences that naturally arise from gender. Thus, if societal expectations were different, the moral orientations of males and females would also be different. In addition, feminist psychologists are divided over Gilligan’s work. While some have praised it, some have criticized it for reinforcing traditional notions of femininity that could continue to lock women into care-giver roles. Feminists have also pointed out that women are not a monolith. They argue that Gilligan’s work makes women’s voices seem homogenous, while denying their nuance and diversity. Sources Bell, Laura. Profile of Carol Gilligan. Psychologys Feminist Voices Multimedia Internet Archive. feministvoices.com/carol-gilligan/â€Å"Carol Gilligan Moral Development Theory Explained.† Health Research Funding. https://healthresearchfunding.org/carol-gilligan-moral-development-theory-explained/Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.â€Å"Ethics of Care.† New World Encyclopedia. 15 August 2017. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ethics_of_careGoodTherapy. â€Å"Carol Gilligan.† 8 July 2015. https://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/carol-gilligan.htmlSander-Staudt, Maureen. â€Å"Care Ethics.† Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://www.iep.utm.edu/care-eth/#SH1aWilkinson, Sue. â€Å"Feminist Psychology.† Critical Personality: An Introduction, edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky, SAGE, 1997, pp. 247-264.